TY - BOOK AU - Crossi,Giorgio TI - The conservation and structural restoration of architectural heritage T2 - International Series on Advances in Architecture 1368-1435; v.1 SN - 1853124826 AV - NA105 C76 2007 PY - 2007/// CY - Southampton, UK ; Boston PB - Wit Press KW - Architecture KW - Conservation and restoration KW - Local KW - Expertising KW - Architectural N1 - Includes Bibliographical references (p.247); Preface -- Part One -- The Scientific approach to the study of architectural heritage 1 -- Chapter 1The role of structure in the history of architecture 3 -- 1 Introduction 3 -- 2 The first steps - Egyptian and Greek architecture 3 -- 2.1 The first materials 3 -- 2.2 The first constructions 3 -- 3 Roman architecture 8 -- 3.1 The new techniques, technologies and structural conception 8 -- 3.2 The Roman works 11 -- 4 From the Byzantine to the Romanesque in Europe 14 -- 4.1 The Byzantine period 14 -- 4.2 Romanesque architecture 17 -- 5 Architecture in Asia 19 -- 5.1 India and South Asia 19 -- 5.2 China and Japan 21 -- 6 Islamic Architecture 23 -- 6.1 Basic Structural aspects 23 -- 6.2 Islamic architecture in the Middle East 23 -- 6.3 Turkey and Asia 26 -- 7 Gothic 27 -- 7.1 The new structural concept 27 -- 7.2 Major and minor cathedrals 29 -- 8 Renaissance and Baroque architecture 31 -- 8.1 Renaissance 31 -- 8.2 Baroque and neo classicism 33 -- 8.3 Dwellings 36 -- 9 The 10th and 20th centuries 36 -- 9.1 The Buildings 36 -- 9.2 The new materials 38 -- 9.3 The structural evolution of bridges 39 -- Chapter 2 The decay of materials and structural damage 41 -- 1 Introduction 41 -- 1.1 Damage and Decay 41 -- 1.2 The origins of damage and decay 41 -- 1.3 Lowering of the strength: stress ratio 42 -- 1.3.1 The actions 42 -- 1.3.2 The materials 42 -- 1.3.3 The structural behavior 43 -- 2 Decay of materials 43 -- 2.1 Environmental conditions 43 -- 2.1.1 Moisture and the crystallization of salts 43 -- 2.1.2 Air 45 -- 2.1.3 Soil deposits and biological and botanical factors 45 -- 2.1.4 Water 45 -- 2.1.5 Temperature 46 -- 2.1.6 Human intervention 46 -- 2.2 Materials 47 -- 2.2.1 Masonry 47 -- 2.2.1.1 Type of Masonry 47 -- 2.2.1.2 Stone 49 -- 2.2.1.3 Bricks 50 -- 2.2.1.4 Mortars 51 -- 2.2.2 Wood 52 -- 2.2.3 Metal Elements 53 -- 2.2.4 Reinforced and prestressed concrete 54 -- 3 Damage to buildings 54 -- 3.1 Introduction 54 -- 3.2 Kinds of Damage 54 -- 3.2.1 The visible signs 54 -- 3.2.2 Cracks and crack patterns 55 -- 3.2.3 Crushing 56 -- 3.3 Damage in different structural elements 57 -- 3.3.1 Pillars and walls 57 -- 3.3.2 Towers, bell towers and minarets 58 -- 3.3.3 Beams, Floors and roofs 59 -- 3.3.4 Arches and Vaults 59 -- 3.3.5 Buildings 63 -- 4 Diagnosis 63 -- Chapter 3 Acquisition of information and data 65 -- 1 Introduction 65 -- 2 Historical research 66 -- 3 Survey 66 -- 3.1 The aim of surveys 66 -- 3.2 Survey drawings 66 -- 3.3 Photographic surveys 67 -- 3.4 Survey of the structure and its damage 67 -- 3.5 Survey of materials and their decay 67 -- 4 Investigations 67 -- 4.1 The aim of testing 67 -- 4.2 Sampling and laboratory test 67 -- 4.2.1 Sampling 67 -- 4.2.2 Mechanical tests 67 -- 4.2.3 Physio chemical tests 68 -- 4.2.3.1Information to be acquired 68 -- 4.2.3.2 Techniques of analysis 68 -- 4.3 In situ test 69 -- 4.3.1 Endoscopic examination 69 -- 4.3.2 Sonic and ultrasonic tests 70 -- 4.3.3 Relaxation tests 70 -- 4.3.4 Pull out tests 73 -- 4.3.5 Sclerometric and penetration test 73 -- 4.3.6 Static load tests 73 -- 4.3.7 Thermography 74 -- 4.3.8 Magnetometry 74 -- 4.3.9 Dynamic Tests 74 -- 5 Monitoring 74 -- 6 Controls and acceptance 77 -- Chapter 4 Criteria and techniques for conservation and restoration 79 -- 1 The philosophy of structural restoration 79 -- 1.1 The decision to restore 79 -- 1.2 Historical importance and safety 79 -- 1.3 Reversibility 80 -- 1.4 Traditional techniques 80 -- 1.5 Modern techniques 82 -- 1.6 Guidelines for design 88 -- 2 Masonry as a material 89 -- 2.1 General criteria 89 -- 2.2 Partial substitution and reintegration of material 90 -- 2.3 Refixing fragments, sealing, etc. 90 -- 2.4 Rainwater systems and regulation 90 -- 2.5 Protection against rising water 91 -- 2.6 Consolidation of the masonry 92 -- 2.6.1 Chemical Treatments 92 -- 2.6.2 Grout injections 93 -- 2.7 Cleaning 94 -- 2.8 Protection of the surfaces 94 -- 2.9 Maintenance 94 -- 3.0 Masonry as a structure 95 -- 3.1 General Criteria 95 -- 3.2 Improvement of the tensile and shear resistance 95 -- 3.2.1 Masonry built with mortar 95 -- 3.2.2 Dry stone masonry 96 -- 3.2.3 Connections 97 -- 3.3 Walls and pillars 97 -- 3.4 Towers, bell towers and minarets 99 -- 3.5 Floor and roof structures 99 -- 3.6 Arches and vaults 102 -- 3.7 Lintels and architraves 106 -- 3.8 Staircases 107 -- 3.9 Repairs on secondary elements 109 -- 4 Structural repairs on reinforced and prestressed concrete 109 -- 6 Methods of shoring and the correction of permanent deformation 111-- Chapter 5 Soil settlement and remedial measures 115 -- 1 Introduction 115 -- 2 The soils 115 -- 2.1 Types of soils 115 -- 2.2 Rocks 115 -- 2.3 Loose rocks and shale 115 -- 2.3.1 Non-cohesive soils (gravel and sand) 115 -- 2.3.2 Cohesive soils (silt and clay)115 -- 2.4 Peat 116 -- 2.5 Fill Material 116 -- 3 The water 116 -- 4 Soil settlement 116 -- 4.1 Generally 116 -- 4.2 Types of settlements 116 -- 4.2.1 Uniform and non-uniform settlements 117 -- 4.2.2 Instantaneous, delayed and sudden deformation 118 -- 4.2.2.1 The basic types of deformation 118 -- 4.2.2.2 Instantaneous deformations 119 -- 4.2.2.3 Delayed Deformation 119 -- 4.2.2.4 Sudden Deformation 119 -- 4.3 The origin of settlements 119 -- 4.3.1 Increase of the loads on the foundation 119 -- 4.3.2 Variation of the loads on the area surrounding the building 120 -- 4.3.4 Dynamic effects 121 -- 5 Damage to buildings 122 -- 5.1 Linear settlement 123 -- 5.2 Non-Linear settlement 127 -- 6 Preventive Measures 127 -- 6.1 Generally 127 -- 6.2 Large excavations 128 -- 6.3 Small excavations close to surfaces foundations 129 -- 6.4 Underground mining for tunnel construction 129 -- 7 Remedial measures 129 -- 7.1 Generally 129 -- 7.2 Actions to improve the soil’s behavior 131 -- 7.2.1 Generally 131 -- 7.2.2 Improving the soil characteristics 131 -- 7.2.3 Regulation of site water conditions 132 -- 7.2.4 Increasing the soil deformability (underexcavation) 133 -- 7.2.5 Additional works 133 -- 7.3 Actions to modify the pressure under foundations 135 -- 7.3.1 Generally 135 -- 7.3.2 Modification of the loads 135 -- 7.3.2.1 Reduction of the loads 135 -- 7.3.2.2 Increase of the loads 135 -- 7.3.2.3 Redistribution of the loads 139 -- 7.3.3 Enlargements of the foundations 140 -- 7.3.4 Underpinning 142 -- 7.4 Actions to modify the building’s behavior 143 -- 7.4.1 Generally 143 -- 7.4.2 Measures to follow settlements 144 -- 7.4.3 Strengthening to counter the settlement 144 -- 8 The recovery of the deformations 146 -- Chapter 6 Seismic actions and remedial measures 147 -- 1 Introduction 147 -- 2 The dynamic behavior 147 -- 2.1 Natural period and frequency 147 -- 2.2 Dynamic effects 147 -- 2.2.1 Periodic and non-periodic actions 147 -- 2.2.2 Forced and free vibrations 147 -- 2.3 The modes of vibration 149 -- 2.4 Ductility 150 -- 3 Earthquakes 151 -- 3.1 The seismic actions 151 -- 3.2 The effect of the soil 152 -- 3.3 The response spectrum 152 -- 3.3.1 The elastic spectrum related to a specific earthquake 152 -- 3.3.2 The normalized elastic spectrum 153 -- 3.3.3 The design spectrum 153 -- 3.3.4 Modal analysis 154 -- 4 Damage to buildings 154 -- 4.1 Generally 154 -- 4.2 Masonry buildings 157 -- 4.2.1 The materials 157 -- 4.2.2 The global behavior 160 -- 4.2.3 Colums and pillars 161 -- 4.2.4 Walls 163 -- 4.3 Reinforced concrete and prestressed structures 171 -- 5 Preventive and remedial measures 174 -- 5.1 Generally 174 -- 5.2 Improvement of the structural behavior 175 -- 5.2.1 Strengthening of the materials 175 -- 5.2.2 Strengthening of structural elements 176 -- 5.2.3 Strengthening the building as a whole 178 -- 5.2.4 Stiffening of the foundations 181 -- 5.2.5 Stabilisation of structural performance 181 -- 5.2.6 Limitation of displacements 181 -- 5.3 Reduction of the seismic effects 182 -- 5.3.1 Reduction of the transferred energy 182 -- 5.3.2 Reduction of the induced forces 183 -- 6 Case History 183 -- 6.1 The damage 183 -- 6.2 Preventive measures that could have reduced the damage 184 -- 6.3 Remedial actions 184 -- Chapter 7 Diagnosis and safety evaluation 185 -- 1 Introduction 185 -- 2 Birth and development of the science 185 -- 2.1 The first steps 185 -- 2.2 The St Peter’s studies 186 -- 2.3 Inductive and deductive processes 189 -- 2.4 Kant’s scheme 191 -- 3 The procedures for diagnosis and safety evaluation 191 -- 3.1 Position of the problem 191 -- 3.2 The historical-critical criterion 191 -- 3.3 The empirical-qualitative criterion 192 -- 3.4 The analytical-quantative criterion 192 -- 3.5 The experimental criterion 193 -- 3.6 The “judgement” on safety levels 193 -- Part Two Structural analysis of masonry buildings 197 -- Chapter 8 Structural analysis of masonry buildings: general aspects 199 -- 1 Introduction 199 -- 2 The actions 199 -- 3 The masonry characteristics 200 -- 3.1 Introduction 200 -- 3.2 The components 200 -- 3.2.1 The bricks 200 -- 3.2.2 The Stones 200 -- 3.2.3 The mortars 200 -- 3.3 Masonry types 200 -- 3.3.1 Brick masonry 200 -- 3.3.2 Stone masonry 201 -- 3.3.3 Dry block masonry 201 -- 3.4 The strength domain 202 -- 3.4.1 Introduction 202 -- 3.4.2 Plane strength domains 203 -- 3.4.2.1 Normal stress/shear stresses strength domain 203 -- 3.4.2.2 Principal stress strength domain 203 -- 3.4.2.3 The intrinsic curve 205 -- 3.4.3 Space strength domain 205 -- 3.4.4 The use of the strength domain in the structural analysis 206 -- 4 The structural schemes 206 -- 4.1 The need of approximations 206 -- 4.2 Criterion of the global and local effects 207 -- 4.3 Criterion of the zones of influence 208 -- 4.4 Criterion of the collaborating zones 208 -- 4.5 Criterion of the global resultant 209 -- 4.6 Criterion of the distribution of the loads or stresses 210 -- 5 The structural analysis 211 -- 5.1 The difficulties of an exact analysis 211 -- 5.2 Elastic analysis 211 -- 5.3 Non linear analysis 214 -- 5.4 The limit analysis 214 -- 5.4.1 Generally 214 -- 5.4.2 The static and kinematic theorems 215 -- 5.4.3 Application and consequences of the limit analysis 216 -- 5.5 Dynamic analysis and calculations 217 -- 5.5.1 Introduction 217 -- 5.5.2 Distribution of the loads throughout the height of a building 219 -- 5.5.3 Distribution of the loads amongst the building structure’s walls 219 -- 5.6 Soil-structure interaction 221 -- Chapter 9 Structural analysis of masonry buildings: specific calculations 223 -- 1 Introduction 223 -- 2 Pillars and walls subjected to vertical loads 223 -- 2.1 Boundary conditions and structural schemes 223 -- 2.2 Increase of bearing capacity due to containment of lateral expansion 224 -- 2.3 Evaluation of the stress-state near openings 226 -- 3 Walls subjected to horizontal actions perpendicular to the middle plain 227 -- 3.1 Boundary conditions and structural schemes 227 -- 3.2 Limit analysis and the “arch effect” 228 -- 3.3 Improving the strength of the wall 230 -- 4 Walls subjected to horizontal actions parallel to the medium plane 230 -- 4.1 Boundary conditions and structural schemes 230 -- 4.2 Limit analysis of a wall panel 231 -- 4.2.1 The panels 231 -- 4.2.2 Application of the static theorem 232 -- 4.2.3 Application of the Kinematic Theorem 232 -- 4.4 Improving the strength of the wall 233 -- 5 Walls subjected to generic horizontal forces 235 -- 6 The building 235 -- 6.1 The global behavior 235 -- 6.2 Floors and roof 235 -- 6.2.1 Vertical loads 235 -- 6.2.2 Horizontal loads 235 – 6.3 The staircases 235 -- 7 Curve structures 236 -- 7.1 The behavior due to the curvature 236 -- 7.2 The equilibrium equations 238 -- 7.3 Isostatic lines and stress flow 239 -- 8 Arches and cables 240 -- 8.1 Arches 240 -- 8.2 Cables 240 -- 9 Domes and vaults 242 -- 9.1 Domes 242 -- 9.2 Vaults 243 -- 10 Shoring and methods of correcting permanent deformation 244 -- 10.1 Introduction 244 -- 10.2 The calculation of the shoring 244 -- 10.3 The recovery of deformations 244 -- References 247 -- Author’s Report -- Dramatic rescue of the tympanum of the Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi 249 -- ER -