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Akers (University of Florida) and Sellers (University of South Florida) review and evaluate the principal criminological theories on the basis of their empirical validity. For this fourth edition, they add separate chapters on biological and psychological theories, and expanded treatment of areas in

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• Preface to the Fourth Edition(p. v)
• Acknowledgments(p. vii)
• Acknowledgments(p. vii)
• Chapter 1 Introduction to Criminological Theory
• What Is Theory?(p. 1)
• Types of Criminological Theories(p. 2)
• Theories of Making and Enforcing Criminal Law(p. 2)
• Theories of Criminal and Deviant Behavior(p. 3)
• Criteria for Evaluating Theory(p. 5)
• Logical Consistency, Scope, and Parsimony(p. 5)
• Testability(p. 6)
• Empirical Validity(p. 8)
• Usefulness and Policy Implications(p. 11)
• Theory and Ideology(p. 12)
• Emphasis on Empirical Validity and Application of Theories(p. 14)
• Summary(p. 14)
• Chapter 2 Deterrence and Rational Choice Theories
• Classical Criminology and the Deterrence Doctrine(p. 17)
• Deterrence: Certainty, Severity, and Celerity of Punishment(p. 18)
• Modern Deterrence Theory(p. 19)
• Studies of Deterrence(p. 19)
• Do Criminal Sanctions Deter?(p. 21)
• Deterrence and Experiential Effects(p. 22)
• Modifications and Expansions of Deterrence Concepts(p. 24)
• Rational Choice Theory(p. 26)
• Deterrence and Expected Utility(p. 26)
• Research on Rational Choice Theory(p. 26)
• Deterrence and Criminal Justice Policy(p. 29)
• Scared Straight, Shock Incarceration, and Boot Camps(p. 32)
• Routine Activities Theory(p. 33)
• Felson and Cohen: Offenders, Targets, and Guardians(p. 33)
• Empirical Validity of Routine Activities Theory(p. 35)
• Routine Crime Prevention and Precautions(p. 39)
• Summary(p. 41)
• Chapter 3 Biological Theories
• Introduction(p. 45)
• Lombroso and Early Biological Theories(p. 45)
• Lombroso's Theory of the Born Criminal(p. 46)
• The Criminal as Biologically Inferior(p. 47)
• Recognizing the Inadequacies of Early Biological Theories(p. 49)
• Modern Biological Theories of Crime and Delinquency(p. 52)
• IQ, Mental Functioning, and Delinquency(p. 53)
• Testosterone and Criminal Aggressiveness(p. 55)
• Genetically Transmitted Criminal Susceptibility: Behavioral Genetics(p. 56)
• Genetically Transmitted Criminal Susceptibility: Evolutionary Theory(p. 61)
• Empirical Validity of Biological Theories of Criminal Behavior(p. 62)
• Policy Implications of Biological Theories(p. 64)
• Summary(p. 66)
• Chapter 4 Psychological Theories
• Psychoanalytic Theory(p. 69)
• Personality Theory(p. 72)
• Psychological Counseling in Delinquency Prevention and Treatment(p. 74)
• Summary(p. 79)
• Chapter 5 Social Learning Theory
• Introduction(p. 81)
• Sutherland's Differential Association Theory(p. 81)
• Akers' Social Learning Theory(p. 83)
• Development of the Theory(p. 83)
• The Central Concepts and Propositions of Social Learning Theory(p. 85)
• The Social Learning Process: Sequence and Feedback Effects(p. 89)
• Social Structure and Social Learning(p. 90)
• Empirical Validity of Social Learning Theory(p. 92)
• Research on Relationship of Criminal and Delinquent Behavior to Social Learning Variables(p. 92)
• Research on Peers and Group Contexts in Crime and Delinquency(p. 93)
• Akers' Research on Social Learning Theory(p. 96)
• Research on Critiques of Social Learning Theory(p. 98)
• Applications of Social Learning Theory in Prevention and Treatment Programs(p. 101)
• Summary(p. 109)
• Chapter 6 Social Bonding and Control Theories
• Introduction(p. 111)
• Early Control Theories(p. 113)
• Reiss' and Nye's Theories of Internal and External Controls(p. 113)
• Reckless's Containment Theory(p. 114)
• Sykes and Matza: Techniques of Neutralization and Drift(p. 115)
• Hirschi's Social Bonding Theory(p. 116)
• The Central Concepts and Propositions of Social Bonding Theory(p. 117)
• Empirical Validity of Social Bonding Theory(p. 119)
• Gottfredson and Hirschi: Self-Control Theory(p. 122)
• Low Self-Control as the Cause of Criminal Behavior(p. 122)
• What Is the Relationship Between Self-Control Theory and Social Bonding Theory?(p. 123)
• Testability of Self-Control Theory(p. 124)
• Research Indirectly and Directly Testing Self-Control Theory(p. 125)
• Policy Implications of Control Theories(p. 129)
• Social Bonding Elements in the Social Development Model(p. 129)
• Policy Implications of Self-Control Theory(p. 131)
• Summary(p. 132)
• Chapter 7 Labeling Theory
• Introduction(p. 135)
• Labeling as a Process of Symbolic Social Interaction(p. 136)
• The Label as an Independent Variable in Crime and Deviance(p. 137)
• Empirical Evidence on Labeling Theory(p. 140)
• Implications of Labeling Theory: Juvenile Diversion Programs(p. 142)
• Braithwaite's Reintegrative Shaming Theory(p. 144)
• Reintegrative Shaming, Restorative Justice, and Faith-Based Programs(p. 147)
• Applications of Restorative Justice(p. 147)
• Theory and Philosophy of Restorative Justice: Reintegration and Rehabilitation(p. 150)
• Effectiveness of Restorative Justice Programs(p. 153)
• The Past and Future of Labeling Theory(p. 155)
• Summary(p. 157)
• Chapter 8 Social Disorganization, Anomie, and Strain Theories
• Introduction(p. 159)
• Social Disorganization and the Urban Ecology of Crime and Delinquency(p. 159)
• Restatements and Research on Social Disorganization(p. 160)
• Classic Anomie/Strain Theories(p. 164)
• Merton's Theory of Social Structure and Anomie(p. 164)
• Cohen: Status Deprivation and the Delinquent Subculture(p. 166)
• Cloward and Ohlin: Differential Opportunity and Delinquent Subcultures(p. 167)
• Miller: Focal Concerns of Lower-Class Culture(p. 169)
• Research on Classic Anomie/Strain Theories(p. 170)
• Are Crime and Delinquency Concentrated in the Lower Class and Minority Groups?(p. 170)
• Social Structural Correlates of Crime Rates(p. 172)
• Gangs and Delinquent Subcultures(p. 172)
• School Dropout and Delinquency(p. 173)
• Perceived Discrepancy Between Aspirations and Expectations(p. 174)
• Contemporary Anomie/Strain Theories(p. 175)
• Messner and Rosenfeld's Institutional-Anomie Theory(p. 175)
• Agnew's General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency(p. 179)
• Community Projects Based on Theories of Social Disorganization, Anomie, and Delinquent Subcultures(p. 182)
• Policy Implications of Contemporary Anomie/Strain Theories(p. 186)
• Summary(p. 187)
• Chapter 9 Conflict Theory
• Introduction(p. 191)
• Law Is a Type of Social Control(p. 191)
• Consensus and Functionalist Theories of Law(p. 193)
• Conflict Theory of Law and Criminal Justice(p. 195)
• Empirical Validity of Consensus and Conflict Theories of Law and Criminal Justice(p. 200)
• Research on Legislation and Public Opinion on Crime and Criminal Justice(p. 200)
• Research on Social Threat and Extra-Legal Variables in Criminal Justice Decision Making(p. 201)
• Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior(p. 208)
• Empirical Validity of Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior(p. 210)
• Policy Implications of Conflict Theory(p. 212)
• Summary(p. 213)
• Chapter 10 Marxist and Critical Theories
• Marxist Theory(p. 217)
• Marxist Theory of Law and Criminal Justice(p. 219)
• Instrumentalist and Structuralist Marxism(p. 219)
• Empirical Adequacy of Marxist Theory of Law and Justice(p. 220)
• Marxist Theory of Crime(p. 223)
• Bonger: Early Marxist Theory of Crime(p. 224)
• Quinney: Class, State, and Crime(p. 224)
• Modifications of Marxist Theory(p. 226)
• Is Crime the Result of a Capitalist Economy?(p. 229)
• Policy Implications of Marxist Theory(p. 231)
• Critical Criminology(p. 233)
• Critical/Constitutive Criminology: Postmodernism and Beyond(p. 233)
• Left Realism(p. 238)
• Peacemaking Criminology(p. 240)
• Summary(p. 243)
• Chapter 11 Feminist Theories
• Introduction(p. 245)
• Feminist Theories of Criminal Justice(p. 246)
• Empirical Validity of Feminist Theories of Criminal Justice(p. 246)
• Feminist Theories of Crime(p. 251)
• Women's Liberation and Female Crime(p. 253)
• Power-Control Theory of Gender and Delinquency(p. 254)
• Patriarchal Society and Crime(p. 256)
• Masculinities and Crime(p. 258)
• Empirical Validity of Feminist Theories of Criminal Behavior(p. 260)
• Policy Implications of Feminist Theories(p. 262)
• Summary(p. 263)
• Chapter 12 Integrating Criminological Theories
• Theory Competition Versus Theory Integration(p. 267)
• Varieties of Theoretical Integration in Criminology(p. 270)
• Conceptual Integration(p. 270)
• Akers: Integration by Conceptual Absorption(p. 270)
• Cullen and Colvin: Social Support and Coercion(p. 271)
• Propositional Integration(p. 273)
• Elliott's Integrative Model of Strain, Bonding, and Learning(p. 273)
• Krohn's Network Analysis(p. 276)
• Thornberry's Interactional Theory(p. 278)
• Kaplan's Self-Derogation Theory(p. 278)
• Bernard's Unified Conflict Theory of Criminal Behavior and Criminal Law(p. 279)
• Tittle's Control Balance Theory(p. 280)
• Developmental and Life-Course Theories(p. 281)
• How Successful Has Theoretical Integration Been in Criminology?(p. 286)
• Summary(p. 286)
• References(p. 289)
• Author Index(p. 343)
• Subject Index(p. 351)