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Recently, mankind is not only suffering from all kind of natural catastrophes (earthquakes, flooding, storms or volcanoes), but increasingly also from so-called man-made disasters, including technological disasters such as explosions, but obviously also terrorism. In recent years, many European legal systems have tried to come up with a specific protection for victims of catastrophes. Some countries have created a specific fund solution; others follow a generous ad hoc approach whereby large amounts of compensation are made available on an ex post basis. This book shall pay attention to all of these seemingly quite different solutions. Experts from different countries report on the way catastrophes are dealt with in their particular jurisdiction from the angle of tort law, social security, and insurance or alternative compensation mechanisms such as compensation funds. Various possible remedies for victims are critically discussed; attention is also paid to the economic analysis of law.

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• Introduction(p. 1)
• Part I Problem Definition(p. 1)
• Part II Goal of this Book(p. 2)
• Part III Methodology(p. 3)
• Part IV Framework of the Project(p. 4)
• Part V Collaborators in this Project(p. 5)
• Part VI Structure of this Book(p. 5)
• Part VII Words of Thanks(p. 6)
• Country Reports(p. 7)
• Austria(p. 7)
• Part I Introduction(p. 7)
• Part II Information on Specific Compensation Systems(p. 8)
• I Tort(p. 8)
• A Fault Liability(p. 8)
• B Strict Liability(p. 9)
• C State Liability(p. 10)
• D Procedure(p. 11)
• II Social Security(p. 11)
• III The Austrian Fund for Catastrophes(p. 12)
• A Introduction(p. 12)
• B Financing of the Fund(p. 12)
• C Two Examples(p. 13)
• 1 Lower Austria(p. 13)
• 2 Salzburg(p. 14)
• D Summary(p. 15)
• 1 Procedure(p. 15)
• 2 Heads and Amount of Damages(p. 15)
• 3 Rules Preventing Cumulation(p. 15)
• IV Private Insurers(p. 16)
• A First-Party Insurance(p. 16)
• B Third-Party Insurance(p. 17)
• C Catastrophe Management(p. 17)
• 1 Catastrophe Management in General(p. 17)
• 2 Mass Collisions in Particular(p. 17)
• Part III Detailed Information on Specific Catastrophes(p. 19)
• I Natural Catastrophes(p. 19)
• A Galtur Avalanche 1999(p. 19)
• B Flood 2002(p. 21)
• 1 Action by the Federal Government(p. 21)
• 2 Details on Lower Austria(p. 23)
• 3 Details on Salzburg(p. 24)
• 4 Private Compensation(p. 24)
• 5 State Liability(p. 27)
• II Man-Made Catastrophes(p. 28)
• A Lassing Mine Collapse 1998(p. 28)
• B Bergisel Panic 1999(p. 29)
• C Kaprun Ski Train Fire 2000(p. 31)
• Part IV Conclusions(p. 34)
• List of References(p. 35)
• Belgium(p. 37)
• Part I Introduction(p. 37)
• Part II Method(p. 38)
• Part III General Scope of the Compensation System(p. 38)
• I Patchwork of Regulations(p. 38)
• II First Overall Survey of the Various Rules(p. 38)
• A Tort Law(p. 38)
• B Insurance Law(p. 39)
• 1 Federal Legislation(p. 41)
• 2 Flemish Legislation(p. 42)
• 3 Brussels Legislation(p. 44)
• 4 Walloon Legislation(p. 45)
• C Social Security(p. 45)
• D Solidarity(p. 46)
• Part IV More Detailed Information(p. 48)
• I Social Security System(p. 48)
• A Workmen's Compensation Law(p. 48)
• B Health Insurance(p. 51)
• II Tort Law(p. 53)
• A Three Basic Requirements(p. 53)
• 1 Damaging Event(p. 53)
• 2 Damage(p. 55)
• 3 Causal Link(p. 56)
• B Compensation(p. 56)
• 1 General Rule: Compensation of the Entire Certain Loss(p. 56)
• 2 Heads of Damage(p. 57)
• III Natural Disasters(p. 59)
• A General Overview(p. 59)
• B Summary of the Legal System Concerning Public Disasters(p. 60)
• C Summary of the Legal System Concerning Natural Disasters(p. 63)
• D Weaknesses of the Actual System and New Prospects(p. 65)
• Part V Procedures(p. 70)
• I Social Security System(p. 70)
• A Charter of the Socially Insured(p. 70)
• B The Workmen's Compensation Law(p. 70)
• II Tort Law(p. 71)
• III Insurance Law(p. 71)
• A General Rule(p. 71)
• B Fire Insurance - Property Insurance(p. 72)
• IV Natural Disasters(p. 72)
• Part VI Combination of the Various Systems(p. 73)
• Part VII Financing(p. 74)
• Part VIII Amounts of Damages(p. 74)
• Part IX Empirics(p. 75)
• Part X General Comments(p. 77)
• List of References(p. 78)
• France(p. 81)
• Part I Introduction(p. 81)
• Part II General Scope of the Compensation System(p. 82)
• I Physical Injury(p. 82)
• II Damage to Property(p. 83)
• Part III More Detailed Information(p. 84)
• I Social Security(p. 84)
• II Insurance(p. 85)
• A Insurance Cover of Natural Catastrophes(p. 86)
• B Insurance Cover of Man-made Catastrophes(p. 88)
• III Compensation Funds(p. 89)
• IV Tort Law(p. 91)
• A Private Law(p. 91)
• 1 Liability Based on Fault(p. 92)
• 2 Strict Liability(p. 92)
• B Public Law(p. 94)
• Part IV Procedure(p. 95)
• I Insurance Schemes(p. 95)
• II Compensation Funds(p. 96)
• III Tort Law(p. 98)
• A Interlocutory Proceedings(p. 98)
• B Limitation Periods(p. 99)
• Part V Financing(p. 101)
• I Social Security Contributions and Insurance Premiums(p. 101)
• II Reassurance and State Guarantee(p. 101)
• III Funding the Compensation Funds(p. 103)
• Part VI Heads and Amounts of Damages(p. 104)
• I Under Tort Law(p. 104)
• A Recoverable Losses(p. 104)
• 1 Property Damage(p. 105)
• 2 Pecuniary Losses (past, actual and future)(p. 105)
• 3 Damnum Emergens(p. 105)
• 4 Lucrum Cessans(p. 105)
• 5 Non-Pecuniary Losses(p. 106)
• B Lump Sums, Periodical Payments, Interim Payments(p. 107)
• II Recoverable Losses under Specific Regimes(p. 108)
• Part VII Rules Preventing Cumulative Benefits(p. 109)
• I Social Security Benefits(p. 110)
• II Insurance Companies Benefits(p. 111)
• III Benefits Received from Compensation Funds(p. 112)
• Part VIII Empirics(p. 113)
• I The Tempests of December 1999(p. 114)
• II The Sinking of the Tanker Erika(p. 114)
• III The Toulouse AZF Explosion(p. 115)
• IV The Rhone Flood of December 2003(p. 116)
• Part IX Conclusion(p. 116)
• List of References(p. 118)
• Germany(p. 119)
• Part I Introduction(p. 119)
• Part II General Scope of the Compensation System(p. 121)
• Part III Specific Regulations(p. 123)
• I Ad hoc Legislation(p. 123)
• II Tort Law(p. 124)
• A Strict Liability(p. 124)
• B Fault Liability(p. 128)
• III Insurance Law(p. 129)
• A Private Insurance Law(p. 129)
• B Social Insurance Law(p. 130)
• IV Further Possible Sources(p. 131)
• A Liability for Acts of State Officials(p. 131)
• B Further Possible State Liability(p. 132)
• Part IV Procedural Questions(p. 133)
• I Distribution of Means under the Flutopferhilfesolidaritatsgesetz(p. 133)
• II Normal Tort Law Procedure(p. 135)
• III Private Insurance Regulation Procedure(p. 136)
• IV Social Insurance Regulation Procedure(p. 137)
• Part V Cumulation of Claims?(p. 137)
• Part VI Financing(p. 138)
• Part VII Heads and Amounts of Damages(p. 139)
• Part VIII Empirics(p. 140)
• Part IX Reform Proposals; Criticism(p. 141)
• I Reform Proposals(p. 141)
• II Criticism(p. 142)
• Part X Concluding Remarks(p. 143)
• List of References(p. 143)
• Italy(p. 145)
• Part I Introduction(p. 145)
• Part II The General Framework of Disaster Law in Italy(p. 147)
• Part III Legislation, Rules and Regulations(p. 147)
• I The Law of Torts(p. 148)
• II Dangerous Activities(p. 150)
• III Nuisance(p. 153)
• IV Moral Damages(p. 154)
• V Specific Issues: Mass Infections(p. 157)
• VI Specific Issues: Smoking(p. 158)
• VII Class Actions?(p. 159)
• VIII Rules of Procedure(p. 161)
• Part IV Mass Torts and Environmental Protection Issues(p. 163)
• I Mass Torts(p. 163)
• II Environment Protection(p. 164)
• A The Environment Act (Law No. 349 of 1986)(p. 164)
• B Other Statutory Provisions(p. 166)
• C Legal Qualification of Environmental Damage as Health Injuries(p. 167)
• D Nature of Liability. Standing to Sue(p. 167)
• Part V State Subsidizing. Special Laws and Extraordinary Government Contributions(p. 169)
• Part VI The European Union Solidarity Fund(p. 171)
• Part VII Private Insurance(p. 172)
• I Private Insurance and Environment Issues(p. 173)
• II Private Insurance and the Costs of Catastrophes(p. 175)
• Part VIII The Major Italian Disasters and Catastrophes(p. 175)
• I The Vajont Disaster (9 October 1963)(p. 176)
• II The Asti Flood (4 September 1948)(p. 176)
• III The Cermis Accidents (9 March 1976 and 3 February 1998)(p. 177)
• IV The Seveso Dioxin Cloud (10 July 1976)(p. 178)
• V The Stava - Val di Fiemme Disaster (19 July 1985)(p. 180)
• VI Floods, Fires, Earthquakes, Droughts and Oil Spills(p. 181)
• Part IX Future Perspectives in the Italian Disaster Recovery System(p. 182)
• I Shared Views(p. 182)
• II The "Mixed" System: Foreign Models(p. 184)
• III ISVAP's Proposals(p. 185)
• IV Law Reform Bills Introducing Mandatory Insurance Coverage for Disasters(p. 186)
• A Reform Bill No. 1164/1993(p. 186)
• B ANIA's Mapping Plan(p. 187)
• C Reform Bill No. 235/1996(p. 187)
• D Reform Bill No. 533/2001(p. 189)
• E ANIA's 2003 Proposals and Government's Current Reform Plan(p. 189)
• Part X Conclusions(p. 191)
• List of References(p. 192)
• The Netherlands(p. 195)
• Part I Introduction(p. 195)
• Part II General Scope of the Compensation(p. 197)
• Part III More Specific Information(p. 198)
• I Liability Law(p. 198)
• II Social Security(p. 201)
• III Insurance(p. 202)
• IV WTS 1998(p. 206)
• V Compensation Funds(p. 208)
• Part IV Heads of Damage and Accumulation of Compensation(p. 212)
• Part V Empirical Evidence(p. 215)
• I Legionella in Bovenkarspel(p. 216)
• II Flooding(p. 218)
• III Enschede(p. 218)
• IV Volendam(p. 220)
• Part VI Criticisms and Reform(p. 222)
• I Criticism(p. 222)
• II Reform(p. 223)
• List of References(p. 224)
• Sweden(p. 227)
• Part I General Scope of the Compensation System(p. 227)
• Part II Detailed Information(p. 227)
• Part III Procedure to Obtain Compensation for Damage(p. 230)
• I Personal Injuries(p. 230)
• A Social Insurance Administration(p. 230)
• B Costs for Medical and Dental Care and Medicines from the Social Insurance(p. 231)
• C Loss of Income(p. 231)
• D Support for the Disabled from the Social Insurance(p. 232)
• E Other Social Insurance Benefits in Case of Death(p. 232)
• F The Work Injuries Insurance Act(p. 233)
• G Support According to the Social Services Act(p. 233)
• H Compensation from Private Insurances for Personal Injuries(p. 234)
• I Criminal Injuries Compensation(p. 235)
• II Compensation for Property Damage(p. 237)
• III Particular Compensation Mechanism for Catastrophes(p. 237)
• A Insurances According to the Swedish Environmental Code(p. 238)
• 1 Environmental Damage Insurance(p. 238)
• 2 Environmental Clean-up Insurance(p. 239)
• B Income Tax Act(p. 240)
• C The Nuclear Liability Act(p. 241)
• D Law on Extraordinary Occurrences in Peacetime in the Municipality and County Council(p. 242)
• E The Reformed Rescue Service Act(p. 242)
• F The Motor Traffic Damage Act(p. 243)
• G Responsibilities for Dams at Hydroelectric Power Stations(p. 243)
• Part IV Administrative Procedure and Appeals(p. 244)
• I Elements of Proof(p. 245)
• II Public Legal Aid and Private Legal Expenses Insurance(p. 246)
• A Private Legal Expenses Insurance(p. 246)
• B Public Legal Aid(p. 246)
• Part V Coordination or Cumulation(p. 248)
• Part VI Discussion(p. 250)
• Part VII Heads and Amounts of Damages(p. 250)
• I Third Party Insurance(p. 252)
• Part VIII Empirics(p. 253)
• I Discotheque Fire in Gothenburg(p. 253)
• II The Ferry Estonia(p. 255)
• III Chernobyl(p. 256)
• IV EU Summit Meeting(p. 256)
• V Agricultural Damage(p. 256)
• Part IX Conclusions(p. 258)
• List of References(p. 259)
• United Kingdom(p. 261)
• Part I Introduction(p. 261)
• Part II Conceptual Concerns(p. 263)
• I State, Insurance and Law(p. 263)
• II Catastrophe, Hazard or Disaster?(p. 264)
• Part III The General Scope of the Compensation Regime(p. 266)
• Part IV The British Compensation Regime(p. 267)
• I Social Security in the UK(p. 267)
• II Social Security Benefits and Insurance(p. 269)
• A Welfare or Social Security Entitlements for Industrial Injuries(p. 269)
• B Compensating Man-made Catastrophes extra the Benefits System(p. 271)
• III Compensating Natural Hazards(p. 272)
• Part V Compensation Funds(p. 276)
• I Flood(p. 276)
• II Terrorism(p. 276)
• Part VI Legal Procedures(p. 278)
• I The Duty of Care(p. 281)
• II The Liability of Public Bodies(p. 283)
• III Access(p. 284)
• IV Limitation of Actions(p. 286)
• Part VII The Assessment of Damages in Tort Law(p. 287)
• I The Recovery of Cumulative Benefits(p. 288)
• Part VIII Procedures(p. 289)
• I Insurance Schemes(p. 289)
• II Fund Solutions(p. 290)
• III Natural Hazards/Insurance(p. 291)
• Part IX Financing(p. 291)
• Part X New Developments(p. 292)
• I Flood Insurance(p. 292)
• II Terrorism after September 2001(p. 295)
• III Compensation Culture(p. 296)
• IV Public Inquiries and Negotiations(p. 296)
• Part XI Concluding Remarks(p. 300)
• List of References(p. 300)
• United States(p. 303)
• Part I Introduction(p. 303)
• I The Role of Tort: Responsible Party(p. 303)
• II Natural Disasters(p. 306)
• Part II Social Welfare Legislation in the U.S.: General Disability Provisions(p. 307)
• I The U.S. Social Security System: Background(p. 307)
• II Disability Provisions: Eligibility Standards(p. 307)
• III Benefit Levels, Treatment of Collateral Sources, and Funding(p. 309)
• IV Administration(p. 310)
• V Health Care Benefits(p. 311)
• VI Concluding Observations(p. 312)
• Part III Disaster Relief: The Role of the Federal Emergency Management Agency(p. 312)
• I Introduction(p. 312)
• II FEMA: Coordination with State and Local Entities(p. 313)
• A The Role of Local Government(p. 313)
• B The Role of State Government(p. 314)
• III FEMA: Core Responsibilities(p. 315)
• A Historical Overview(p. 315)
• B Obtaining Federal Assistance(p. 316)
• C The Federal Response(p. 317)
• 1 Federal Personnel Available(p. 317)
• 2 Types of Federal Assistance Provided for Individuals and Businesses(p. 318)
• 3 Types of Federal Assistance Provided for Communities(p. 319)
• IV Funding of FEMA and Coordination with Collateral Sources(p. 319)
• V Concluding Observations(p. 320)
• Part IV Insurance: The Intersecting Private/Public Sectors(p. 323)
• I Introduction(p. 323)
• II Types of Insurance Coverage Triggered by Disaster Events(p. 324)
• A Nuclear Reactor Accidents: Price-Anderson Act(p. 324)
• B Federal Terrorism Risk Insurance Act(p. 325)
• C California Earthquake Authority(p. 327)
• D National Flood Insurance Program(p. 330)
• III Concluding Observations(p. 332)
• Part V Three Case Studies of Compensation for Catastrophic Loss(p. 334)
• I The September 11 Victim Compensation Fund(p. 335)
• A The September 11 Victim Compensation Fund: Statutory Framework(p. 335)
• B The September 11 Victim Compensation Fund: Regulatory Guidelines(p. 338)
• 1 Collateral Source Offset(p. 339)
• 2 Economic Loss(p. 339)
• 3 Non-economic Loss(p. 340)
• 4 Resolving Tensions: A Hybrid Model(p. 340)
• II Compensating Hurricane Damage: Hurricane Andrew(p. 342)
• A Role of Private Insurance(p. 342)
• 1 Hurricane-related Losses Compensated by Insurance(p. 342)
• 2 Uncompensated Losses(p. 343)
• B Impacts on the Insurance Industry(p. 344)
• 1 Residential Property and Casualty Joint Underwriting Association(p. 345)
• 2 Florida Hurricane Catastrophe Fund(p. 346)
• C Role of FEMA(p. 347)
• D Concluding Observations(p. 349)
• III Catastrophic Loss in Tort: The Case of Commercial Airline Crashes(p. 350)
• A Applicable Tort Principles(p. 350)
• B Background Social Welfare and Insurance Systems(p. 351)
• C Empirical Analysis of the Compensation System(p. 352)
• Part VI Critical Assessment of the System(p. 353)
• List of References(p. 356)
• Compulsory Catastrophe Extension of First Party Property Insurance from a Competition Policy Perspective(p. 361)
• Part I Introduction(p. 361)
• Part II The Anti-Competitive Effects of a Compulsory Catastrophe Coverage Extension of First Party Property Insurance(p. 364)
• I The French Law and the Italian Proposal(p. 364)
• II Competition Law: The Prohibition of Cartel Agreements and Abuses of a Dominant Position(p. 365)
• III The Restrictions of Competition Resulting from a Compulsory Extension of First Party Property Insurance(p. 366)
• IV Compulsory Catastrophe Extension of First Party Property Insurance and the Group Exemption for the Insurance Industry(p. 368)
• V The State Compulsion Defense(p. 371)
• Part III Compulsory Catastrophe Extension of First Party Property Insurance Re-assessed: Efficiency Defense or Solidarity Exception?(p. 374)
• I Coverage of Catastrophic Loss in a Competitive Insurance Market and the Problem of Adverse Selection(p. 374)
• II The Need to Cope with Adverse Selection and the Conditions for an Exemption from the Cartel Prohibition(p. 376)
• A The First Condition: Improvement of Production or Distribution, or Technical or Economic Progress(p. 377)
• B Benefits to Consumers(p. 380)
• C The Proportionality Requirement(p. 381)
• D A Sufficient Degree of Remaining Competition(p. 382)
• III The Solidarity Exception(p. 383)
• Part IV Conclusions(p. 385)
• List of References(p. 387)
• Comparative and Policy Conclusions(p. 389)
• Part I Introduction(p. 389)
• Part II General Compensation System(p. 390)
• I Austria(p. 391)
• II Belgium(p. 391)
• III France(p. 391)
• IV Germany(p. 394)
• V Italy(p. 394)
• VI The Netherlands(p. 395)
• VII Sweden(p. 395)
• VIII United Kingdom(p. 396)
• IX United States(p. 396)
• X Summary(p. 398)
• Part III Social Security(p. 399)
• Part IV Tort(p. 402)
• Part V Insurance(p. 406)
• I General(p. 406)
• II Austria(p. 407)
• III France(p. 407)
• IV Belgium(p. 408)
• V Germany(p. 409)
• VI Italy(p. 409)
• VII The Netherlands(p. 409)
• VIII Sweden(p. 411)
• IX United Kingdom(p. 411)
• X United States(p. 412)
• XI Summary(p. 413)
• Part VI Compensation Funds(p. 415)
• Part VII Procedural Aspects(p. 419)
• Part VIII Financing(p. 423)
• I General(p. 423)
• II Financing of Funds(p. 423)
• III Financing of Insurance Solutions(p. 424)
• IV Public-Private Partnerships(p. 425)
• V Summary(p. 426)
• Part IX Damages(p. 427)
• Part X Cumulation(p. 429)
• Part XI Reforms and Criticisms(p. 432)
• Part XII Critical Economic Analysis(p. 435)
• I Liability and Liability Insurance(p. 435)
• A Importance(p. 435)
• B Tort Law as Deterrent(p. 437)
• C Compulsory Insurance(p. 438)
• II First Party Insurance(p. 438)
• A Market Failure?(p. 438)
• B Compulsory Insurance?(p. 440)
• C Outlook(p. 442)
• III Public Intervention(p. 444)
• A Government as (Re-)Insurer or Santa Claus?(p. 444)
• B Fund or Ad Hoc?(p. 446)
• IV Policy Conclusions(p. 448)
• List of References(p. 449)
• Annnex: Questionnaire(p. 453)
• Part I Introduction(p. 453)
• Part II Method(p. 454)
• Part III General Scope of the Compensation System(p. 454)
• Part IV More Detailed Information(p. 454)
• Part V Procedure(p. 455)
• Part VI Cumulation(p. 456)
• Part VII Financing(p. 456)
• Part VIII Heads and Amounts of Damages(p. 456)
• Part IX Empirics(p. 457)
• Part X Reforms/Criticism(p. 457)
• Index(p. 459)
• Publications(p. 463)