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Provides a practical, student-friendly introduction to the major concepts and everyday issues in this field. Superbly organized, pedagogically sound, and thoroughly up-to-date, it shows teachers and prospective teachers how to conduct first-rate assessment in their own classrooms as well as how to understand and interpret state and national testing programs, including the latest developments from IDEA and NCLB. The text emphasizes a best-practices approach to assessment and a hands-on approach to learning.

Tabla de contenidos provista por Syndetics

• 1 Introduction: The World of Educational Assessment(p. 1)
• Objectives(p. 1)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 1)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 1)
• The Main Areas in Educational Assessment(p. 1)
• Basic Principles(p. 2)
• Teacher-made Assessments(p. 3)
• Externally Prepared Tests(p. 4)
• Special Applications(p. 4)
• Guidelines from Professional Groups(p. 5)
• Purposes of Assessment(p. 6)
• Users of Educational Assessment(p. 8)
• Current Trends and Emphases(p. 9)
• A Little Bit of History(p. 9)
• Standards-based Education(p. 12)
• Accountability(p. 13)
• Legal Activism(p. 13)
• Concern for Fairness(p. 14)
• Item Response Theory(p. 14)
• Performance Assessment(p. 15)
• State, National, and International Testing Programs(p. 15)
• Computerization(p. 16)
• Keeping Perspective(p. 18)
• Some More Terminology(p. 18)
• Measurement, Testing, Assessment(p. 19)
• Standardized Testing(p. 19)
• Distinctions Among Types of Tests(p. 20)
• High-stakes Testing(p. 21)
• Practical Advice(p. 21)
• Summary(p. 22)
• Key Terms(p. 23)
• Exercises(p. 23)
• 2 Statistics: Just a Little Bit(p. 24)
• Objectives(p. 24)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 24)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 24)
• Divisions of Statistics(p. 25)
• Using the Computer for Statistics(p. 25)
• Variables(p. 25)
• Organization of Raw Data(p. 27)
• Central Tendency(p. 28)
• Variability(p. 29)
• Shapes of Distributions(p. 31)
• z-scores(p. 34)
• The Correlation Coefficient and Scattergram(p. 35)
• Cautions in Interpreting the Correlation Coefficient(p. 38)
• Correlation Does Not Imply Causation(p. 38)
• Most Correlations Detect Only Linear Relationships(p. 38)
• The Assumption of Equal Scatter(p. 39)
• The Correlation Depends on Variability in the Group(p. 39)
• Practical Advice(p. 40)
• Summary(p. 41)
• Key Terms(p. 41)
• Exercises(p. 42)
• 3 Reliability: Consistency of Performance(p. 43)
• Objectives(p. 43)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 43)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 43)
• Some Examples(p. 44)
• Reliability: The Basic Notion(p. 44)
• What Factors Affect Reliability: The Sources of Unreliability(p. 47)
• Test Scoring(p. 47)
• Test Content(p. 48)
• Test Administration(p. 48)
• Personal Conditions(p. 49)
• A Conceptual Framework(p. 49)
• Methods of Determining Reliability(p. 51)
• Test-Retest Reliability(p. 51)
• Interrater and Intrarater Reliability(p. 52)
• Alternate Form Reliability(p. 54)
• Internal Consistency Reliability(p. 54)
• Three Important Conclusions(p. 58)
• The Standard Error of Measurement(p. 59)
• Confidence Bands(p. 59)
• Appropriate Units for SEM(p. 60)
• Some Important Distinctions for the Term "Standard Error"(p. 61)
• Reliability in Item Response Theory (IRT)(p. 61)
• Reliability for Criterion-Referenced Interpretation(p. 62)
• Reliability of What?(p. 63)
• Some Concluding Examples(p. 64)
• Practical Advice(p. 64)
• Summary(p. 65)
• Key Terms(p. 66)
• Exercises(p. 66)
• 4 Validity: What the Test Measures(p. 67)
• Objectives(p. 67)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 67)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 67)
• Introduction(p. 67)
• Definition of Validity: Refining Our Thinking(p. 68)
• Construct Underrepresentation and Construct Irrelevant Variance(p. 68)
• Constructs as Targets(p. 70)
• The Basic Issue(p. 71)
• Face Validity(p. 71)
• Content Validity(p. 72)
• Application to Achievement Tests(p. 72)
• How to Build Content Validity Into an Assessment(p. 74)
• How to Check Content Validity of an Existing Test(p. 75)
• Instructional Validity(p. 76)
• Content Validity in Other Areas(p. 77)
• Problems With Content Validity(p. 77)
• Criterion-Related Validity(p. 79)
• External, Realistic Criterion(p. 79)
• Contrasted Groups(p. 81)
• Correlations With Other Tests(p. 82)
• Special Considerations for Interpreting Criterion-Related Validity(p. 83)
• Construct Validity(p. 84)
• Effect of Experimental Variables(p. 84)
• Developmental Changes(p. 84)
• Factor Analysis(p. 85)
• Response Processes(p. 85)
• Consequential Validity(p. 86)
• Test Fairness, Test Bias(p. 87)
• Studying Fairness for Classroom Assessments(p. 89)
• Validity vs. Accuracy of Norms(p. 90)
• Practical Advice(p. 91)
• Summary(p. 91)
• Key Terms(p. 92)
• Exercises(p. 92)
• 5 Norms and Criteria: Interpreting Student Performance(p. 93)
• Objectives(p. 93)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 93)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 93)
• The Basic Issue(p. 94)
• Norm-referenced and Criterion-referenced Interpretation(p. 94)
• The Raw Score(p. 95)
• The Correction for Guessing(p. 96)
• The Special Case of Theta ([Theta])(p. 96)
• Types of Norms(p. 99)
• Percentile Ranks and Percentiles(p. 100)
• Strengths and Weaknesses of Percentile Ranks(p. 101)
• Standard Scores(p. 101)
• T-scores(p. 103)
• SATs and GREs(p. 103)
• Deviation IQs(p. 104)
• Stanines(p. 104)
• Normal Curve Equivalents(p. 106)
• Multilevel Standard Scores(p. 106)
• Strengths and Weaknesses of Standard Scores(p. 106)
• Developmental Norms(p. 107)
• Grade Equivalents(p. 107)
• Mental Age(p. 108)
• Other Developmental Norms(p. 108)
• Strengths and Weaknesses of Developmental Norms(p. 109)
• Examples of Norm Tables(p. 110)
• Narrative Reports and Norms(p. 111)
• Norm Groups(p. 112)
• National Norms(p. 112)
• International Norms(p. 112)
• Convenience Norm Groups(p. 113)
• User Norms(p. 113)
• Subgroup Norms(p. 113)
• Local Norms(p. 114)
• Institutional Norms and School Norms(p. 115)
• The Standardization Group: Determining Its Usefulness(p. 116)
• Criterion-referenced Interpretation(p. 117)
• Setting Performance Standards(p. 118)
• Special Scores(p. 122)
• Sample Reports(p. 122)
• Looking at Dora's Reports(p. 125)
• Self-Referencing on Repeated Measures(p. 125)
• Practical Advice(p. 127)
• Summary(p. 127)
• Key Terms(p. 127)
• Exercises(p. 128)
• 6 Planning for Assessment(p. 129)
• Objectives(p. 129)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 129)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 129)
• Introduction(p. 129)
• General Goals vs. Specific Objectives(p. 130)
• Taxonomies for Educational Objectives(p. 130)
• Bloom's Taxonomy(p. 131)
• The Affective Domain(p. 132)
• The Psychomotor Domain(p. 135)
• Alternative Taxonomies for the Cognitive Domain(p. 136)
• A Conclusion and a Caution(p. 138)
• Sources of Educational Objectives(p. 139)
• Professional Organizations(p. 139)
• States(p. 141)
• NAEP and TIMSS(p. 142)
• Textbooks(p. 142)
• School Districts(p. 143)
• Teacher-prepared Objectives(p. 143)
• Guidelines for Preparing Your Own Objectives(p. 143)
• The Overall Assessment Plan(p. 146)
• Planning a Specific Assessment(p. 148)
• Practical Advice(p. 150)
• Summary(p. 150)
• Key Terms(p. 151)
• Exercises(p. 151)
• 7 Selected-Response Items: Multiple Choice, True-False, and Matching(p. 152)
• Objectives(p. 152)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 152)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 152)
• Types of Test Items: Categories and Terms(p. 153)
• Comparison of Selected-Response and Constructed-Response Items(p. 154)
• Multiple-choice Items(p. 157)
• Suggestions for Writing MC Items(p. 159)
• A Brief Summary(p. 167)
• True-False Items(p. 167)
• Other Binary Choice Formats(p. 169)
• Matching Items(p. 169)
• Allowing Student Comments(p. 171)
• Developing Item-Writing Skill(p. 171)
• Lucky Guessing(p. 172)
• Practical Advice(p. 172)
• Summary(p. 172)
• Key Terms(p. 173)
• Exercises(p. 173)
• 8 Constructed-Response Items: Essays, Performances, and Portfolios(p. 175)
• Objectives(p. 175)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 175)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 175)
• General Nature of Constructed-Response Items(p. 176)
• Two Key Challenges for Constructed-Response Items(p. 177)
• Completion Items(p. 178)
• Essays(p. 180)
• Performance Tasks(p. 181)
• Methods of Scoring and Scoring Rubrics(p. 182)
• Automated Scoring(p. 186)
• Special Issues for Performance Assessments(p. 187)
• Differing Applicability(p. 187)
• Collaborative Work on Performance Tasks(p. 187)
• Essays and Performance Tasks Completed Outside the Classroom(p. 188)
• Brief CRs for Formative Evaluation(p. 188)
• Suggestions for Preparing Constructed-Response Items(p. 190)
• Suggestions for Completing the Scoring(p. 192)
• Portfolio Assessment(p. 193)
• Special Characteristics of Portfolios(p. 194)
• Some Cautions(p. 198)
• Principles for Evaluating Portfolios(p. 199)
• Practical Advice(p. 200)
• Summary(p. 201)
• Key Terms(p. 202)
• Exercises(p. 202)
• 9 Interests, Creativity, and Nontest Indicators(p. 203)
• Objectives(p. 203)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 203)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 203)
• Assessing Interests and Attitudes(p. 204)
• The Likert Method(p. 204)
• The Problem of Faking(p. 206)
• Free-Response Measures of Interests and Attitudes(p. 207)
• Two Practical Matters(p. 207)
• Existing Measures of Interests and Attitudes(p. 208)
• Assessing Creativity(p. 208)
• Convergent and Divergent Thinking(p. 208)
• Prompts for Creative Thinking(p. 209)
• Scoring Creative Responses(p. 210)
• Standardized Tests for Creative Thinking(p. 212)
• Nontest Indicators(p. 212)
• Follow-up Activities: Jobs and College(p. 212)
• Indexes From Routine Records(p. 213)
• Satisfaction Reports(p. 214)
• Self-Reports of Achievement(p. 215)
• Unobtrusive Measures(p. 217)
• Nontest Indicators for Classroom Use(p. 218)
• Outcomes, Not Inputs(p. 218)
• Concluding Notes on Nontest Indicators(p. 219)
• Practical Advice(p. 220)
• Summary(p. 220)
• Key Terms(p. 220)
• Exercises(p. 220)
• 10 Administering and Analyzing Tests(p. 222)
• Objectives(p. 222)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 222)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 222)
• Administering Tests(p. 223)
• Not Fair!(p. 223)
• Preparing Test Materials(p. 224)
• Remote Preparation of Students(p. 225)
• Immediate Preparation of Students(p. 226)
• Managing the Testing Environment(p. 227)
• Preparation for Scoring(p. 228)
• Returning the Tests(p. 229)
• Wrapping Up(p. 230)
• Item Analysis(p. 231)
• Two Key Item Statistics: p and D(p. 232)
• How Does Item Analysis Help?(p. 234)
• Item Analysis in Large-Scale Testing Programs(p. 235)
• Item Analysis for Interest and Attitude Measures(p. 236)
• Item Analysis for Essays and Performance Items(p. 236)
• Item Analysis Computer Programs(p. 237)
• Qualitative, Informal Item Analysis(p. 238)
• Cheating: Prevalence, Practices, and Prevention(p. 238)
• Prevalence(p. 239)
• Practices(p. 239)
• Prevention(p. 240)
• Practical Advice(p. 241)
• Summary(p. 241)
• Key Terms(p. 242)
• Exercises(p. 242)
• 11 Standardized Tests I: Achievement(p. 244)
• Objectives(p. 244)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 244)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 244)
• Standardized Achievement Tests: What Are They?(p. 245)
• A Broad Classification of Standardized Achievement Tests(p. 245)
• Some Common Characteristics(p. 246)
• Contrasts with Teacher-Made Tests(p. 247)
• Achievement Batteries(p. 248)
• An Example: Stanford Achievement Test(p. 249)
• A Class List Report for Ms. Prescott's Class(p. 251)
• Typical Uses and Special Features(p. 253)
• Single-area Achievement Tests(p. 255)
• Examples(p. 255)
• Looking at Jenny's Report(p. 258)
• Diagnostic Tests(p. 258)
• Typical Uses and Special Features(p. 259)
• Licensing and Certification Tests(p. 260)
• Examples(p. 260)
• The Praxis Exams(p. 261)
• Typical Uses and Special Features(p. 262)
• State Assessment Programs(p. 263)
• General Characteristics(p. 263)
• Sources of Information about State Assessment Programs(p. 265)
• A National and an International Testing Program(p. 265)
• A National Testing Program: NAEP(p. 266)
• An International Testing Program: TIMSS(p. 266)
• Special Features(p. 267)
• Individually Administered Achievement Tests(p. 268)
• Examples(p. 268)
• Typical Uses and Special Features(p. 269)
• Administering Standardized Tests(p. 270)
• Before Testing(p. 270)
• During the Test(p. 271)
• After the Test(p. 272)
• Clearly Unethical Practices(p. 272)
• Practical Advice(p. 274)
• Summary(p. 274)
• Key Terms(p. 275)
• Exercises(p. 275)
• 12 Standardized Tests II: Ability, Interests, and Personality(p. 277)
• Objectives(p. 277)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 277)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 277)
• Mental Ability Tests(p. 278)
• A Profusion of Names(p. 278)
• Theories About Mental Ability(p. 278)
• Individually Administered Mental Ability Tests(p. 280)
• General Features of Individually Administered Mental Ability Tests(p. 280)
• Examples of Individually Administered Mental Ability Tests(p. 281)
• Group-Administered Mental Ability Tests(p. 285)
• General Features of Group-Administered Mental Ability Tests(p. 285)
• Examples of Group-Administered Mental Ability Tests(p. 287)
• Intelligence Tests and the Definition of Mental Retardation(p. 292)
• Intelligence Tests and the Definition of Learning Disabilities(p. 294)
• Personality and Behavior Rating Scales(p. 295)
• Self-Report Inventories(p. 296)
• Projective Techniques(p. 298)
• Behavior Rating Scales(p. 300)
• Career Interest Inventories(p. 302)
• General Characteristics(p. 302)
• Typical Uses and Users(p. 304)
• Widely Used Career Interest Inventories(p. 305)
• Practical Advice(p. 306)
• Summary(p. 307)
• Key Terms(p. 307)
• Exercises(p. 307)
• 13 Grading and Reporting(p. 309)
• Objectives(p. 309)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 309)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 309)
• Definition of Grading(p. 310)
• Purposes of Grades(p. 311)
• Feedback(p. 311)
• Administrative Purposes(p. 312)
• Motivation(p. 312)
• Rationales for Assigning Grades(p. 313)
• Pros and Cons of the Various Rationales(p. 314)
• Research Results and Conclusions(p. 316)
• Coding Systems: The Actual Grades(p. 317)
• Letter Grades(p. 317)
• Percentage Grades(p. 317)
• Verbal Descriptors(p. 318)
• Checklists(p. 319)
• Narrative Reports(p. 320)
• Combining Information to Get a Final Grade(p. 321)
• Record Keeping(p. 321)
• Applying Weights to the Elements(p. 324)
• Converting All Scores to a Common Scale(p. 324)
• Converting the Composite to a Grade(p. 325)
• Three Special Problems(p. 326)
• The Effect of Variability on Weights(p. 326)
• The Effect of Zero Scores(p. 327)
• The Effect of Regression to the Mean(p. 328)
• Grades for Nonacademic Areas(p. 329)
• Report Cards(p. 330)
• Other Procedures for Reporting to Parents(p. 332)
• Parent-Teacher Conference(p. 332)
• Reporting Standardized Test Results to Parents(p. 333)
• Other Communications(p. 336)
• Legal Considerations(p. 337)
• Practical Advice(p. 338)
• Summary(p. 338)
• Key Terms(p. 339)
• Exercises(p. 339)
• 14 Educational Assessment and the Law(p. 340)
• Objectives(p. 340)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 340)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 340)
• Definition of Laws(p. 341)
• Basic Terminology(p. 341)
• Why Is It So Confusing?(p. 343)
• Laws Related to Assessment(p. 344)
• The 14th Amendment(p. 344)
• The Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1991(p. 346)
• Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965(p. 346)
• Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Americans With Disabilities Act of 1990(p. 347)
• Individuals With Disabilities Education Act: IDEA 2004 and Its Predecessors(p. 348)
• No Child Left Behind Act(p. 353)
• Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act(p. 357)
• Gifted and Talented Students(p. 358)
• Illustrative Court Cases(p. 359)
• Debra P. v. Turlington and GI Forum v. TEA(p. 360)
• Larry P. v. Riles, PASE v. Hannon, and Crawford v. Honig(p. 361)
• A Concluding Reminder on Grading(p. 364)
• Practical Advice(p. 364)
• Summary(p. 364)
• Key Terms(p. 365)
• Exercises(p. 365)
• 15 Evaluating Teaching: Applying Assessment to Yourself(p. 367)
• Objectives(p. 367)
• What This Chapter Is About(p. 367)
• Why This Topic Is Important(p. 368)
• Our Focus of Attention(p. 368)
• Let's Remember Basic Principles(p. 369)
• Why Is It So Difficult?(p. 369)
• Administrator Ratings(p. 369)
• Mentor/Colleague Ratings(p. 372)
• Videotaping and Audio Recording(p. 372)
• Protfolios(p. 374)
• Student Test Scores(p. 374)
• Student Ratings of Teachers(p. 377)
• Parent Ratings(p. 379)
• Student Self-Reports of Achievement(p. 380)
• Unobtrusive Measures(p. 381)
• Teacher Competency Tests and Additional Certifications(p. 381)
• Don't Forget the "Other Stuff"(p. 382)
• The Importance of Content(p. 382)
• From Information to Reflection to Action(p. 383)
• Practical Advice(p. 385)
• Summary(p. 385)
• Key Terms(p. 386)
• Exercises(p. 386)
• Appendixes
• A Sources of Information About Tests(p. 387)
• B Major Test Publishers(p. 393)
• C Useful Formulas(p. 394)
• D Sample IEP(p. 398)
• E State Web Sites(p. 403)
• Glossary(p. 404)
• References(p. 412)
• Name Index(p. 421)
• Subject Index(p. 424)

Notas de autor provistas por Syndetics

Thomas P. Hogan teaches in the Education and Psychology Departments of the University of Scranton