Tabla de contenidos provista por Syndetics

• Chapter 1 Introduction to Criminal Justice Research Methods: Theory and Method(p. 1)
• Scientific Research in Criminal Justice(p. 2)
• Common Sense and Nonsense(p. 3)
• Why Study Research Methods in Criminal Justice?(p. 5)
• The Emergence of Science and Criminal Justice(p. 6)
• The Probabilistic Nature of Science(p. 8)
• Proper Conduct of Critical Inquiry(p. 8)
• Approaches to Theory and Method in Criminal Justice(p. 9)
• Exhibit 1.1 Merton's "Matthew Effect" in Science(p. 10)
• Exhibit 1.2 The Paradigm Shift in Policing(p. 11)
• Pure Versus Applied Research(p. 13)
• Exhibit 1.3 The Project on Human Development(p. 16)
• Exhibit 1.4 Crime Analysis: Applied Criminal Justice Research(p. 18)
• Qualitative and Quantitative Research(p. 19)
• Researchese: the Language of Research(p. 20)
• Concepts(p. 20)
• Operationalization(p. 21)
• Variables(p. 21)
• Dependent and Independent Variables(p. 21)
• Theories/Hypotheses(p. 21)
• Examples of the Research Process(p. 22)
• Recidivism among Juvenile Offenders(p. 24)
• General Steps in Empirical Research in Criminal Justice(p. 24)
• Problem Formulation: Selection of Research Problem(p. 25)
• Problem Formulation: Specification of Research Problem(p. 26)
• Exhibit 1.5 Feminist Perspectives and Research Methods(p. 27)
• Exhibit 1.6 The World Wide Web (WWW)(p. 30)
• Chapter 2 Ethics in Criminal Justice Research(p. 33)
• Ethical Horror Stories(p. 34)
• Biomedical Examples(p. 34)
• Social Science Examples(p. 34)
• Exhibit 2.1 AIDS Research in Africa and Asia: Is It Ethical?(p. 37)
• Researcher Fraud and Plagiarism(p. 40)
• Exhibit 2.2 Legendary Research Scams(p. 41)
• The Researcher's Role(p. 42)
• Research Targets in Criminal Justice(p. 43)
• Ethics and Professionalism(p. 43)
• Ethics in Criminal Justice Research(p. 44)
• History of Federal Regulation of Research(p. 45)
• The Belmont Report(p. 47)
• Institutional Review Boards(p. 48)
• Research Activities Exempt from HHS Review(p. 49)
• National Institute of Justice's Human Subject Protection Requirements(p. 51)
• Confidentiality of Criminal Justice Research(p. 52)
• Exhibit 2.3 Codes of Research Ethics of the ACJS and the ASC(p. 53)
• Ethical Issues in Criminology/Criminal Justice Research(p. 56)
• Avoid Research That May Harm Respondents(p. 57)
• Honor Commitments to Respondents and Respect Reciprocity(p. 58)
• Exercise Objectivity and Professional Integrity in Performing and Reporting Research(p. 58)
• Protect Confidentiality and Privacy of Respondents(p. 59)
• Ethical Problems(p. 60)
• The Brajuha Case (Weinstein Decision)(p. 62)
• The Ofshe Case(p. 63)
• The Hutchinson Case(p. 64)
• Additional Ethical Concerns(p. 66)
• Avoiding Ethical Problems(p. 67)
• Chapter 3 Research Design: The Experimental Model and Its Variations(p. 70)
• The Experimental Model(p. 71)
• Research Design in a Nutshell(p. 72)
• Causality(p. 72)
• Resolution of the Causality Problem(p. 72)
• Rival Causal Factors(p. 74)
• Validity(p. 75)
• Internal Factors: Variables Related to Internal Validity(p. 75)
• History(p. 75)
• Maturation(p. 76)
• Testing(p. 77)
• Instrumentation(p. 77)
• Statistical Regression(p. 77)
• Selection Bias(p. 78)
• Experimental Mortality(p. 78)
• Selection--Maturation Interaction(p. 79)
• External Factors: Variables Related to External Validity(p. 79)
• Testing Effects(p. 79)
• Selection Bias(p. 80)
• Reactivity or Awareness of Being Studied(p. 80)
• Multiple-Treatment Interferences(p. 80)
• Related Rival Causal Factors(p. 81)
• Hawthorne Effect(p. 81)
• Halo Effect(p. 81)
• Post Hoc Error(p. 81)
• Placebo Effect(p. 82)
• Other Rival Causal Factors in Criminal Justice Field Experiments(p. 82)
• Diffusion of Treatment(p. 83)
• Compensatory Equalization of Treatment(p. 83)
• Local History(p. 83)
• Experimental Designs(p. 84)
• The Classic Experimental Design(p. 86)
• Some Criminal Justice Examples of the Classic Experimental Design(p. 86)
• Candid Camera(p. 86)
• Scared Straight(p. 86)
• Community Policing(p. 87)
• Exhibit 3.1 The Kansas City Gun Experiment(p. 89)
• Other Experimental Designs(p. 88)
• Posttest-Only Control Group Design(p. 88)
• Solomon Four-Group Design(p. 91)
• Preexperimental Designs(p. 92)
• One-Group Ex Post Facto Design(p. 92)
• One-Group Before-After Design(p. 93)
• Two-Group Ex Post Facto Design(p. 93)
• Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Designs(p. 94)
• Exhibit 3.2 The Cycle of Violence and Victims of Child Abuse(p. 95)
• Quasi-Experimental Designs(p. 96)
• Time-Series Designs(p. 96)
• Multiple Interrupted Time-Series Designs(p. 96)
• Counterbalanced Designs(p. 99)
• Some Other Criminal Justice Examples of Variations of the Experimental Model(p. 99)
• The Provo and Silverlake Experiments(p. 99)
• Exhibit 3.3 Evaluations of Shock Incarceration(p. 101)
• The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment(p. 102)
• The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment(p. 103)
• The Experiment As a Data-Gathering Strategy(p. 104)
• Advantages of Experiments(p. 105)
• Disadvantages of Experiments(p. 105)
• Chapter 4 An Introduction to Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies and the Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports(p. 109)
• Alternative Data-Gathering Strategies(p. 110)
• Social Surveys(p. 111)
• Participant Observation(p. 112)
• Life History and Case Studies(p. 113)
• Unobtrusive Measures(p. 113)
• Exhibit 4.1 Applied Research: Geographic Information Systems (GIS)(p. 114)
• The Special Case of Uniform Crime Reports(p. 115)
• The Crime Index(p. 116)
• Crime Rate(p. 117)
• Cautions in the Use of UCR Data(p. 119)
• Factors Affecting the UCR(p. 119)
• Related UCR Issues(p. 121)
• Exhibit 4.2 The Crime Dip(p. 122)
• UCR Redesign(p. 124)
• National Incident-Based Reporting System(p. 124)
• Exhibit 4.3 The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)(p. 125)
• NIBRS versus UCR(p. 127)
• Chapter 5 Sampling and Survey Research: Questionnaires(p. 132)
• Types of Sampling(p. 133)
• Probability Samples(p. 133)
• Nonprobability Samples(p. 138)
• Exhibit 5.1 Crime Profiling(p. 142)
• Sample Size(p. 144)
• Survey Research(p. 144)
• Some Guidelines for Questionnaire Construction(p. 146)
• Questionnaire Wording(p. 147)
• Pretest(p. 151)
• Organization of the Questionnaire(p. 151)
• Mail Surveys(p. 152)
• Advantages of Mail Surveys(p. 153)
• Disadvantages of Mail Surveys(p. 154)
• Ways of Eliminating Disadvantages in Mail Surveys(p. 154)
• Follow-up(p. 155)
• Offering Remuneration(p. 156)
• Attractive Format(p. 156)
• Sponsorship and Endorsements(p. 157)
• Personalization(p. 157)
• Shortened Format(p. 158)
• Good Timing(p. 158)
• Self-Reported Measures of Crime(p. 159)
• Some Problems With Self-Report Surveys(p. 162)
• Strengths of Self-Report Surveys(p. 163)
• Reliability(p. 163)
• Validity(p. 163)
• Use of Other Data(p. 164)
• Use of Other Observers(p. 164)
• Use of Polygraph(p. 164)
• "Known Group" Validation(p. 164)
• Use of Lie Scales(p. 165)
• Measures of Internal Consistency(p. 166)
• Use of Interviews(p. 166)
• Internet Surveys(p. 166)
• Advantages of Internet Surveys(p. 167)
• Disadvantages of Internet Surveys(p. 167)
• Procedures in Internet Surveys(p. 167)
• Chapter 6 Survey Research: Interviews and Telephone Surveys(p. 171)
• Types of Interviews(p. 172)
• Advantages of Interviews(p. 174)
• Disadvantages of Interviews(p. 175)
• Interviewing Aids and Variations(p. 175)
• Exhibit 6.1 Public Opinion Polls(p. 176)
• General Procedures in Interviews(p. 178)
• Training and Orientation Session(p. 178)
• Arranging the Interview(p. 178)
• Demeanor of Interviewer(p. 179)
• Administration of the Structured Interview(p. 179)
• Probing(p. 180)
• The Exit(p. 180)
• Recording the Interview(p. 181)
• Telephone Surveys(p. 182)
• Advantages and Prospects of Telephone Surveys(p. 182)
• Disadvantages of Telephone Surveys(p. 183)
• Computers in Survey Research(p. 184)
• Random Digit Dialing(p. 185)
• Techniques Employed in Telephone Surveys(p. 186)
• Victim Surveys in Criminal Justice(p. 187)
• National Crime Victimization Survey(p. 188)
• Sampling(p. 188)
• Panel Design(p. 189)
• A Comparison of UCR, Ncvs, and Self-Report Data(p. 190)
• Some Problems in Victim Surveys(p. 192)
• Cost of Large Samples(p. 192)
• False Reports(p. 192)
• Mistaken Reporting(p. 193)
• Poor Memory(p. 193)
• Telescoping(p. 193)
• Sampling Bias(p. 193)
• Overreporting and Underreporting(p. 194)
• Interviewer Effects(p. 194)
• Coding Unreliability and Mechanical Error(p. 195)
• Problems Measuring Certain Crimes(p. 195)
• Benefits of Victim Surveys(p. 195)
• A Defense of Victim Surveys(p. 196)
• Controlling for Error in Victim Surveys(p. 196)
• Bounding(p. 196)
• Reverse Record Checks(p. 197)
• Victim Surveys: A Balanced View(p. 197)
• Community Crime Victimization Survey Software(p. 198)
• Redesign of the National Crime Victimization Survey(p. 198)
• Exhibit 6.2 The Redesigned National Crime Victimization Survey(p. 199)
• Chapter 7 Participant Observation and Case Studies(p. 206)
• A Critique of Experiments and Surveys(p. 207)
• Verbal Reports versus Behavior(p. 207)
• A Defense of Quantitative Research(p. 209)
• Participant Observation(p. 209)
• Types of Participant Observation(p. 211)
• Characteristics of Participant Observation(p. 212)
• Objectivity in Research(p. 213)
• "Going Native"(p. 214)
• General Procedures in Participant Observation(p. 215)
• Field Notes(p. 215)
• Mnemonics(p. 216)
• Caution in Use of Other Recording Methods(p. 216)
• Tips on Participant Observation(p. 217)
• Gaining Access(p. 217)
• Exhibit 7.1 American Skinheads(p. 219)
• Gatekeepers(p. 220)
• Announcement of Intentions(p. 220)
• Sampling(p. 220)
• Reciprocity and Protection of Identity(p. 221)
• Concern for Accuracy(p. 222)
• Examples of Participant Observation(p. 222)
• Exhibit 7.2 Islands in the Streets(p. 223)
• Exhibit 7.3 This Thing of Darkness: A Participant Observation Study of Idaho Christian Patriots(p. 225)
• Advantages of Participant Observation(p. 225)
• Disadvantages of Participant Observation(p. 226)
• Case Studies(p. 227)
• Life History/Oral History(p. 227)
• Some Examples of Case Studies(p. 228)
• Journalistic Field Studies(p. 228)
• Single-Subject Designs(p. 229)
• Chapter 8 Unobtrusive Measures, Secondary Analysis, and the Uses of Official Statistics(p. 233)
• Major Types of Unobtrusive Methods(p. 234)
• Physical Trace Analysis(p. 235)
• Use of Available Data and Archives(p. 236)
• Secondary Analysis(p. 237)
• Personal Documents and Biographies(p. 237)
• Examples of Secondary Analysis(p. 240)
• Exhibit 8.1 Automated Pin Mapping: Applied Criminal Justice Research Using GIS for Crime Analysis(p. 242)
• Exhibit 8.2 Street Gang Crime in Chicago(p. 244)
• Limitations of Official Data(p. 246)
• Measuring Hidden Populations(p. 246)
• Historical and Archival Data(p. 247)
• Content Analysis(p. 248)
• Content Analysis by Computer(p. 251)
• Meta-Analysis(p. 251)
• Exhibit 8.3 Applied Criminal Justice Research: Hotspot Analysis(p. 253)
• Sources of Existing Data(p. 254)
• Exhibit 8.4 X-Files at the Federal Bureau of Investigation(p. 256)
• Exhibit 8.5 National Archive of Criminal Justice Data(p. 258)
• Observation(p. 259)
• Disguised Observation(p. 262)
• Simulations(p. 265)
• Advantages of Unobtrusive Measures(p. 267)
• Disadvantages of Unobtrusive Measures(p. 268)
• Chapter 9 Validity, Reliability, and Triangulated Strategies(p. 271)
• Error in Research(p. 271)
• Reasons for Lack of Validation Studies in Criminal Justice(p. 273)
• Ways of Determining Validity(p. 274)
• Face Validity(p. 274)
• Content Validity(p. 275)
• Construct Validity(p. 276)
• Pragmatic Validity(p. 276)
• Convergent-Discriminant Validation/Triangulation(p. 277)
• Reliability(p. 280)
• Test-Retest(p. 281)
• Multiple Forms(p. 281)
• Split-Half Technique(p. 282)
• Mythical Numbers(p. 282)
• Phantom Army of Addicts(p. 282)
• Adam (Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Program)(p. 283)
• Exhibit 9.1 Adam(p. 284)
• Other Examples of Research Validation(p. 286)
• Chapter 10 Scaling and Index Construction(p. 290)
• Levels of Measurement(p. 290)
• Exhibit 10.1 Score Yourself General Attitude/Knowledge Survey(p. 293)
• Scaling Procedures(p. 294)
• Arbitrary Scales(p. 295)
• The Uniform Crime Report as an Arbitrary Scale(p. 296)
• Attitude Scales(p. 297)
• Thurstone Scales(p. 297)
• Likert Scales(p. 298)
• Guttman Scales(p. 301)
• Other Scaling Procedures(p. 305)
• Q Sort(p. 305)
• Semantic Differential(p. 305)
• Other Variations(p. 307)
• Crime Seriousness Scales(p. 308)
• Sellin-Wolfgang Index(p. 309)
• Types of Crime Seriousness Scales(p. 309)
• Prediction Scales(p. 311)
• The Salient Factor Score(p. 312)
• Greenwood's "Rand Seven-Factor Index"(p. 312)
• Career Criminal Programs(p. 314)
• Advantages of Scales(p. 315)
• Disadvantages of Scales(p. 315)
• Chapter 11 Data Analysis: Coding, Tabulation, and Simple Data Presentation(p. 318)
• Variables List(p. 319)
• Computers(p. 320)
• Data Management(p. 321)
• Editing(p. 321)
• Coding(p. 322)
• Coder Monitoring(p. 325)
• Keyboard Entry(p. 326)
• Data Verification(p. 326)
• Simple Data Presentation(p. 326)
• Rates(p. 328)
• Proportions(p. 329)
• Percentages(p. 329)
• Ratios(p. 330)
• The Frequency Distribution(p. 330)
• Graphic Presentations(p. 331)
• Pie Charts(p. 332)
• Bar Graphs(p. 333)
• Frequency Polygons (Line Charts)(p. 334)
• Crime Clocks(p. 335)
• Table Reading(p. 338)
• Why Bother with Tables?(p. 338)
• What to Look for in a Table(p. 338)
• Steps in Reading a Table(p. 338)
• Summary of Table 11.3(p. 339)
• How to Construct Tables(p. 342)
• Presentation of Complex Data(p. 342)
• General Rules for Percentaging a Table(p. 342)
• Improper Percentaging(p. 347)
• Elaboration(p. 347)
• Lying with Statistics(p. 349)
• Chapter 12 Data Analysis: A User's Guide to Statistics(p. 353)
• Why Study Statistics?(p. 354)
• Types of Statistics(p. 355)
• Measures of Central Tendency for a Simple Distribution(p. 356)
• Mode(p. 356)
• Median(p. 356)
• Mean(p. 357)
• Measures of Dispersion(p. 358)
• Range(p. 360)
• Standard Deviation ([sigma])(p. 360)
• Standard Deviation Units (Z Scores)(p. 363)
• Chi-Square (X[superscript 2])(p. 365)
• Calculation of Chi-Square(p. 366)
• Cautions(p. 368)
• Chi-Square-Based Measures of Association(p. 368)
• Phi Coefficient ([phi]) and Phi-Square ([phi superscript 2])(p. 369)
• Contingency Coefficient (C)(p. 369)
• Cramer's V(p. 369)
• Nature and Types of Statistics(p. 369)
• Nonparametric Statistics(p. 370)
• Null Hypothesis(p. 370)
• Tests of Significance(p. 371)
• The t Test (Difference of Means Test)(p. 372)
• Types of t Tests(p. 373)
• Anova (Analysis of Variance)(p. 375)
• Calculation of ANOVA(p. 376)
• Other Measures of Relationship(p. 378)
• The Concept of Relationship(p. 378)
• Correlation Coefficient (Pearson's r)(p. 379)
• Interpretation of Pearson's r(p. 379)
• Calculation of Pearson's r(p. 380)
• Statistical Significance of Pearson's r(p. 381)
• Regression(p. 382)
• Ordinal Level Measures of Relationship(p. 383)
• Spearman's Rho (r[subscript s])(p. 383)
• Interpretation of Rho(p. 385)
• Gamma(p. 385)
• Multivariate Analysis(p. 388)
• Partial Correlation(p. 388)
• Multiple Correlation and Regression(p. 389)
• Statistical Software(p. 390)
• Caveat Emptor(p. 391)
• The Ecological Fallacy(p. 392)
• Chapter 13 Policy Analysis and Evaluation Research(p. 396)
• Policy Analysis(p. 397)
• Evaluation Research(p. 398)
• Policy Experiments(p. 399)
• Policy Analysis: The Case of the National Institute of Justice Research Program(p. 400)
• NIJ Mission Statement(p. 400)
• NIJ Research Priorities(p. 401)
• A Systems Model of Evaluation Research(p. 402)
• Types of Evaluation Research(p. 403)
• Will the Findings Be Used?(p. 405)
• Is the Project Evaluable?(p. 405)
• Who Can Do This Work?(p. 407)
• Steps in Evaluation Research(p. 407)
• Problem Formulation(p. 408)
• Design of Instruments(p. 408)
• Research Design(p. 409)
• Data Collection(p. 410)
• Data Analysis(p. 410)
• Utilization(p. 411)
• What Works in Criminal Justice?(p. 412)
• Exhibit 13.1 Preventing Crime: What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising(p. 413)
• Obstacles to Evaluation Research(p. 415)
• Researchers and Host Agencies(p. 416)
• Appendix A How to Write the Research Report(p. 418)
• Appendix B Table of Random Numbers(p. 423)
• Appendix C Statistics: An Addendum to Chapter 12(p. 425)
• Measures of Central Tendency for Grouped Data(p. 425)
• Standard Deviations for Grouped Data(p. 427)
• Raw Score Approach(p. 428)
• Deviation Score Approach(p. 429)
• Calculation of Anova(p. 430)
• Regression Calculations(p. 431)
• A Test of Significance for Gamma(p. 432)
• Appendix D Answers to Pop Quizzes in Chapter 12(p. 433)
• Appendix E Normal Curve Areas(p. 438)
• Appendix F Distribution of Chi-Square (X[superscript 2])(p. 443)
• Appendix G Proposal Writing and Evaluation(p. 444)
• Proposal Writing(p. 444)
• Funding Agencies(p. 444)
• Grantsmanship(p. 444)
• Basic Elements of a Proposal(p. 445)
• NIJ Proposal Format and Content(p. 450)
• Evaluation of Research Proposals(p. 452)
• NIJ Evaluation of Proposals(p. 453)
• References(p. 454)
• Glossary(p. 490)
• Name Index(p. 495)
• Subject Index(p. 502)